Theory


 * Educational Theory**


 * Welcome to Educational Theory! Here, you'll find information on six unique theorists who have made significant contributions to the world of education. They've pondered and proposed answers to questions such as What should we teach? When should we teach? Why should we teach? Who should we teach? And, probably the most elusive of them all, How should we teach? For each theorist, we've included a mini-biography (Who), an objective and clear outline of their theory (What), and an explanation of how their theory is relevant today and to you as a new teacher (Why). Additionally, we've listed several books either written by or about the theorists that will provide a much more detailed and nuanced exploration of the ideas introduced here.

We highly encourage you to consider how theory and practice intertwine, so therefore we've linked many of the other components of this handbook to particular philosophers. In so doing, you'll see how we've incorporated elements of these theories into our individual classrooms. How will you? ** **Jean Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development**
 * Who:** Jean Piaget (1896—1980) was a native of Switzerland, but both he and his theories have received international recognition. He was an accomplished biologist by age 21, and transitioned into the study of the development of children’s understanding soon after.

(Birth—2 yrs) || * Differentiates self from objects (2—7 yrs) || * Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words (7—11 yrs) || * Can think logically about objects and events (11 yrs and up) || * Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically This table retrieved from //[|www.learningandteaching.com]//
 * What:** Piaget is responsible for the theory of cognitive development, in which cognitive development is divided into four stages. As children psychologically mature, they progress through the stages. As children progress, they are able to undertake increasingly complex tasks. Piaget proposes that as children enter pre-pubescence (i.e. ages 11—13), they should be in stage four, although due to a variety of factors this is not always the case. The stages are as follows.
 * Stage || Characterized by ||
 * Sensori-motor
 * Recognizes self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally
 * Achieves object permanence: realizes that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the sense ||
 * Pre-operational
 * Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others
 * Classifies objects by a single feature ||
 * Concrete operational
 * Achieves conservation of number, mass, and weight
 * Classifies objects according to several features ||
 * Formal operational
 * Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems ||


 * Why:** Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has become central to the theory of cognitive constructivism, which asserts that children will progress through these stages naturally regardless of the nurture they receive. However, many scholars deem the stages too rigid, citing evidence that some children progress faster or slower, and some never reach the formal operational stage. Yet, Piaget’s theory has done much towards the shaping of our modern curriculum, especially its pacing. When you begin teaching, most likely you will receive a pacing calendar or a curriculum map, or be asked to create one or both. If done properly, the curriculum will build naturally upon itself, becoming more complex and demanding. So to does the overarching curriculum of K—12. In any given subject, whether it is math or English, //what// concepts we decide to teach and //when// we decide to introduce them to our students is based largely on their progression through these stages.

Piaget, J., Inhelder, B. (2000). //The Psychology of the Child (2nd edition)//. New York, NY: Basic Books.
 * Further Reading:**

Piaget, J. (2001). //The Psychology of Intelligence//. London, UK: Taylor & Francis.

**John Dewey: Constructivist Theory**
 * Who:** John Dewey (1859—1952) is one of the most important thinkers of modern day due to his theories on philosophy, psychology, and pedagogy. He was born in Vermont and enrolled in the state university there, from which he graduated. He then taught at various institutions, including the University of Chicago for which he developed the Department of Pedagogy’s curriculum. Shortly thereafter, he opened the department’s experimental school, called the University Elementary School, which allowed aspiring teachers to concurrently learn while actively practicing in an actual classroom. This practice became and remains popular in many schools of education, and has taken new and even dramatic forms in programs such as Teach for America and New York City Teaching Fellows. For better or worse, Dewey is largely responsible for how teachers are trained today.


 * What:** John Dewey is one of the leaders of what is known as progressive education, specifically the theory of social learning, which is also known as Constructivism. Constructivism, simply put, is a focus on //learning// rather than on //teaching// . This paradigm shift resulted from the theory “that learners construct knowledge for themselves—each learner individually and socially constructs meaning—as he or she learns” (Hein, 1991). For example, if you want to learn how to ride a bike, you do not read a book on bicycle theory—you get on the bike and practice. (A synonym for constructivism is //experiential learning// —learning by experiencing). Dewey divided the process of learning via constructivism into five parts. First, that the student is sufficiently interested in the activity //for its own sake//, and not for some extrinsic reward. Second, the problem or idea to be worked through is genuine and relevant for the student, rather than hypothetical, inapplicable, or fantastical. Third, the student is then given the skills and information needed to deal with the problem or idea, rather than being given an answer. Fourth, the student develops his or her own solutions and, fifth, the student is given the opportunity to test his or her ideas by application, thereby determining their validity. Constructivism, then, rejects traditional learning, which emphasizes repetitive, rote memorization, regardless of student interest or relevancy.


 * Why:** The influence of Constructivism is far reaching and has manifested itself in many unique ways. An example of one such manifestation is Fordham University’s lesson plan template (by no means unique), which is divided into three parts. During the first part, known as the mini-lesson, the teacher introduces the day’s skill or strategy, such as determining an author’s point of view. The second part is dedicated to practicing the skill, usually with a partner or in a group. Incorporating group work is important because students then learn from each other, which increases relevancy. The third part, generally known as independent practice, gives students the opportunity to //apply// the skill in a meaningful and relevant way.

Constructivism has not only shaped individual lessons, but also entire curriculums. A constructivist teacher inquires as to students’ understanding of a concept before sharing his or her own. The student’s understanding and responses should then drive the lessons, shift instructional strategies, and alter the content, all as necessary. A constructivist teacher literally constructs the curriculum based on who their students are and what they already understand. For example, an inner-city teacher might make __Romeo and Juliet__ more relevant and interesting by first exploring what the students know of urban warfare, such as the rivalry between the Bloods and the Crips, and then allowing them to make the necessary connections. This approach validates the students’ experiences, activities their schema, and makes them genuine participants in the process of learning.

Teachers may find the constructivist approach, since it is more fluid and ever changing, more challenging than traditional instruction, but for those that believe in learning by doing or learning from experience, then it is the only way to teach.

Dewey, J. (1997). //Democracy and Education//. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Dewey, J. (1997). //Experience and Education//. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
 * Further Reading:**

**Horace Mann: Theory of Free Public Education**
 * Who:** Horace Mann (1796—1859) is widely regarded as the father of America’s revolutionary public school system, and also its biggest advocate. He was born in Massachusetts and grew up relatively poor and received very little schooling except in the tenants of the Calvinistic faith, which he ultimately rejected in favor of more Unitarian beliefs. Mann graduated from Brown having studied law. He then went on to become a senator before accepting the position of the Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education. Mann abandoned politics in favor of education due in part to his Unitarian belief that mankind could be improved.

To support such a massive and comprehensive overhaul of the American public school system, Mann proposed taxing the American people. This, of course, was met with skepticism, especially from religious groups and those without children. In response to the former, Mann argued for non-sectarian schools so that no one religion would be favored, and to the latter he explained that a better, more civilized and conscious society is the natural consequence of an educated public.
 * What:** Mann’s influence was initially confined to the Massachusetts school system, but has since shaped public education internationally. He has three major accomplishments to his credit. First, he advocated for free public schools and compulsory attendance for every child, whether boy or girl. The latter became law in 1852. Second, he established schools for teacher training, the first being Normal School for Teachers in Lexington, Mass in 1839. Before Mann, teachers were trained rather willy-nilly, or not at all, and with no consensus on best practices. Third, he established school district libraries. All three of these developments contributed to the unifying and standardization of the public school system.

The fact that America’s public education system has either been adopted by or influenced school systems throughout the world is a testament to the strength of his reason. A free public school system is perhaps the most incredible means by which some sense of social unity and equity is achieved, and Horace Mann is its father.
 * Why:** Mann views free public education as the only means to complete liberation and humanization. The entirety of his argument and theory rests on three ostensible consequences of free public education. First, free public education will benefit the nation’s economy. Mann believes that educated people will generally be more industrious and productive, not to mention progressive and foreword thinking. Second, it will benefit the morality of the country by teaching the nation’s children a general set of moral principles. For example, have you ever heard the saying, “All I really need to know I learned in kindergarten?” In school, you learn to share, to play fair, to not steal, and to apologize when you’re wrong, among other things. Without school, Mann argues, there will be no moral standard. Third, an educated public will be more active in the political process and less prone to government abuse and mischief. How can one decide objectively on a presidential candidate, for example, if one is ignorant of the important issues of their day? How can one stand up against an aberrant government if they can’t write or articulate themselves clearly?

Johnson, J., Musial, D., Hall, E., Gollnick, D., & Dupuis, V. (2004). //Introduction to the// //Foundations of American Education//. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
 * Further Reading:**

**Benjamin Bloom: Bloom's Taxonomy**
 * Who:** Benjamin S. Bloom (1914-1999) was an educational psychologist. He was a professor at the University of Chicago for over thirty years. Bloom became an important man and even became an educational adviser for the governments of Israel, India and other nations. Besides classifying learning objectives, he was also very interested in the nature of intelligence.


 * What:** Bloom is as significant in the theoretical field of education as one can be. His name has been and will be ringing from the mouths of teachers, principals, and professors across the country and world. That is because he is responsible for what is now known as Bloom’s Taxonomy, which is the classification of learning objectives. First there are three domains of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The rhetoric built for the cognitive domain is what the fuss is all about, and what conventional wisdom links to Bloom’s taxonomy. Bloom created a hierarchy of types of knowing:




 * Why:** Bloom’s Taxonomy is a comprehensive and systematic paradigm for evaluating types of learning and planning curriculum and lessons. This is a widely used rhetoric that has swept across schools around the world – and it //is// extremely practical and scientific. Having a solid understanding of Bloom’s Taxonomy helps you understand the process of thinking you need to take your students through in your content. It helps you determine the rigor and the point of your lessons and units. It also helps you evaluate student performance. You need to have high expectations for your students. Bloom’s Taxonomy is like a theoretical ladder for you to guide your students up. And furthermore, any principal will and should assume that you know it.


 * Further** **Reading****:**
 * Anderson, Lorin W. (1994). //Bloom’s taxonomy: A forty-year retrospective//. **** Chicago **** : **** University **** of **** Chicago **** Press. **

**Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural Theory**
 * Who:** Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Soviet psychologist who lived through the Russian Revolution. A prolific writer, Vygotsky had a wide range of interests. His work did not become well known in America until the second half of the 20th century. Tuberculosis ended is life at 37.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory begot an important term in educational psychology. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the range of what a child can do on her/his own to what a child can do with help.
 * What:** Vygotsky is extremely important in educational psychology. His sociocultural theory has impacted the American educational system probably as much as any other. Basically, Vygotsky thought that one’s social and cultural context played a paramount importance in one’s cognitive development. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in one’s cognitive growth. By learning from and with others one develops cognitively in ways one could not individually. After the social learning takes place, the individual is able to incorporate the new material, information, skills, or attitudes. The development, of course, is wholly dependent on the social context, and so culture becomes an interesting variable in individual development.

This graphic retrieved from //www.learningandteaching.com//

This is the level at which a student should be taught. For it is not something a child can already do (and thus does not need to be taught) and is something the child can achieve (a child should not be asked to do something he/she will not be able to do, since that will only be frustrating and possibly very destructive).


 * Why:** Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory practically supports almost everything we do in American public schools today. Teachers and principals want kids to be learning in a socially rich environment, learning from both teachers and peers, individually and in groups. While the question of what is more of a factor, one’s ability or one’s environment might not be easy, there is no doubt one’s environment does play a major role in one’s development. While of course you the teacher will influence your students academically through the social context of your classroom, kids need to learn together sometimes. This needs to happen in your classroom.

The Zone of Proximal Development is one theory you will see in action everyday of your teaching career. The idea is simple: don’t teach what students already know or what they will not have a chance of achieving. But finding the ZPD of your students both as a group and individually is not as easy as it looks. Without a general idea of your students’ ZPD, however, you can’t call yourself a teacher.


 * Further** **Reading****:**
 * Daniels, Harry. (2007). //The// ****// Cambridge //****// companion to Vygotsky //**** . **** New York ****, **** NY **** : **** Cambridge ** ** University **** Press. **
 * Langford, Peter. (2005). //Vygotsky’s developmental and educational psychology.// **** New York ****, **** NY **** : Psychology Press. **

**Lisa Delpit: Culture of Power**
 * Who:** Lisa Delpit is a Harvard graduate who has published many invaluable insights about the flaws in the way conventional teaching wisdom approaches cultures that are not middle-class white America. She has done educational research in New Guinea and Alaska and written several book and essays. Harvard Graduate School of Education gave her the award for Outstanding Contribution to Education in 1993.


 * What:** Lisa Delpit is known for being an articulate and passionate voice for the often voiceless in our educational system. One of her most important works is about the culture of power in the classroom. These are the five aspects of power she presented:


 * 1) Issues of power are enacted in the classroom.
 * 2) There are codes or rules for participating in power; that is, there is a “culture of power.”
 * 3) The rules of the culture of power are a reflection of the rules of the culture of those who have power.
 * 4) If you are not already a participant in the culture of power, being told explicitly the rules of that culture makes acquiring power easier.
 * 5) Those with power are frequently least aware of—or least willing to acknowledge—its existence. Those with less power are often most aware of its existence. (1988)

Thus a school environment wherein the culture of power is kept implicit does not give those who do not know the rules and codes of the culture of power as equal of a chance to gain power and success (within the culture of power) as those who already do know the rules and codes. Therefore, only a school environment wherein the culture of power is made explicit is there a more legitimately equal access to education, opportunity, and success.


 * Why:** As a teacher you are an authority figure, a giver of knowledge and skills, and in many ways a gatekeeper. Delpit has successfully forced (or enabled) teachers to reflectively take a look at what we may be doing that reinforces systems of power based on race, heritage, and culture. The point is that it simply is not fair (not equal!) to expect that students from a non middle class white American culture should be able to learn on their own how to succeed in our national school culture which is dominated by it. Not only is it not fair, it is not logical. Students who are not taught these codes explicitly are therefore starting from a disadvantaged point compared to those who already know these codes. From formal English to accepted types of behavior in a classroom, a teacher who wants to be aware of the inescapable gatekeeper attributes inherent in the profession, must come to terms with how he/she will approach the system of power within his/her classroom and content. This also connects to having clear expectations for your students.


 * Further** **Reading****:**
 * Delpit, Lisa D., Dowdy, Joanne. (1988) The silenced dialogue: Power and pedagogy in educating other people’s children. //Harvard Educational Review//, 58 (3) 280-298. **


 * Delpit, Lisa D. (2002) //The skin that we speak: Thoughts on language and culture in the classroom.// **** New York ****, **** NY **** : New Press. **